Gloablization free essay sample

The Globalization of Misconstrued African American Beauty and HIP-HOP Culture Kerri A. Reedier-Morgan Georgia State university [emailprotected] Gus. Du Abstract From news coverage to entertainment, the media shapes, reflects, reinforces and defines the world in which we live. In publishing, theatre, films, television and popular music-industries largely controlled by white menBlacks continually struggle for both a voice and representation. Many scholars write about the stereotyping of Blacks in the media (Meyers, 1999: Davis, 1989).Light skinned Black women with classic European features predominate in beauty pageants, music videos, and in the world of modeling. It is with respect to the world of modeling and music that this discussion will examine the globalization and communication of Black female beauty. I will examine the historical creation of Black beauty In the United States and Europe and how theses misconstrued Images play out globally. Image Is what colonizes the mind John Hendricks Clarke Introduction A number of writers discuss the adverse effects of this false definition of Black beauty e. We will write a custom essay sample on Gloablization or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page G.Kathy Russell, 1992; Alice Walker, 1982; Maroon Meyers, 1999). These writers show clear links between this offensively constructed definition of Black beauty and the negative self -view It Imposes Researchers expose how the erroneous characterization of Black beauty/culture has created and reinforced this destructive definition of Black beauty/culture that is based on an American/European ideal. Investigating these historically racist systems leads us to ask four serious questions: How are misrepresentations of Black beauty/culture played out in the modeling industry, cosmetic corporations?How does the media contribute to the global transmission of these Images? What are the negative consequences of transmission of these misrepresentations? Finally, are there any positives that come from the global transmissions of African American beauty/and culture? An exploration of African American Hip-Hop sub-culture will expose how younger generations of people are defining themselves outside of the commodities, globalizes mainstream Ideal of beauty and c ulture. Modeling and Televising Black Beauty and Culture in The united States and EuropeThe media portrayal of images that support the ideal that /hite is right and white is beautiful, has created and maintained the American / European beauty ideal; pale to fair skin, long straight hair (preferably blond) light eyes (preferably blue), slim nose and skinny. Unfortunately, this does not embrace the diasporas of Blackness, the many shades, shapes and colors of African American women. After much struggle a were able to break the color barrier did so only because of their likeness to the beauty ideal Jackson et al. 1979, Green 1991, Ferguson 2002).These women were students of slaves who though tragically created, were given the label mulatto and oftentimes passed for white or a close enough likeness to be accepted by mainstream society. In the U. S. Specifically, many Black women were faced with a beauty ideal that did not resemble the reflection in the mirror. Many entrepreneurs began and sustained successful businesses based on selling the white ideal to the Black woman. Skin lightning became a common practice in the Black community (Russell 1992). There are still remnants of this practice visible at your local Walgreen.In 1991 The New York Department of Consumer Affairs survey of over 1,000 ads in 27 magazines and of 22,000 pictures in 157 catalogues found that while African American women comprised 12% of America and 11% of the readers of magazines, only 3% of all models in magazines ads were Black. The pattern is similar with Latino and Asians. The few minority figures that did appear in these advertisements were overwhelmingly cast in stereotypical roles: athlete, musician, menial worker, object of charity, or child (Green 1991).The range of acceptable images was narrow and the depictions of women were particularly debased: a maid or housekeeper. If in print, she represented the woman selling feminine hygiene products. Not until later in history did the Resurrection vision of Black beauty infiltrate America media. During the late asss Diane Carroll an African American model and actress was portrayed as a middle-class widowed single mother with one child. The Diane Carroll Show portrayed a slim fair skinned, docile nurse typifying the American ideal of African American family, that of the single mother, beautiful which equaled lighter skin and assimilated. During the ass and ass there were very few African American leading males or females. The ass and ass saw a few more leading men come along. After Bill Cowboys The Cubby Show more Black women were seen in commercials yet, for Black women, the roles were as predictablethe housewife, the overweight cleaning expert, sweet grandma, and soda-drinking teenagers-as they were few. This visual disparagement is not an oversight. What we see or dont see affects how we think and feel about others and ourselves.Strongman (1984) investigated the role of television representations of African Americans and how these representations affect attitudes and social habits. Americas lack of investment n minority consumerism only reinforces the view that minorities are seen as second- rate citizens. As a matter of practice, African Americans were shot only in-group pictures. This practice has been defined by Breather (1957) as inoculation, a process in which advertisers or other capitalist consumer systems incorporate small elements of ethnicity into the media.By including small doses of ethnicity into mainstream media, advertisers reinforce racist ideals of separation, exclusion and acceptance at a cost. Additionally, advertisers help make certain that there is no significant allegations of their product with Blacks, while creating the hallucination that Blacks are significantly included in advertisements. For the advertising industry, the emergence of the ethnic market has not meant that many more minority images are used in general advertising.Instead, ethnic minorities are used in separate ad campaigns targeted outside the general market, in Black, Latino and Asian media. As reaction to this exclusion, Black models wanted to discard the tired notion that dark brown skin pre destined danger, fear, and poverty, and at the same time, sexual power and primitive authenticity. They wanted to dispel as well the outmoded haughtiness that lighter skin signified safety, accomplishment and astuteness, but also instability and yearning.In Summers (1998) Skin Deep: Inside the World of Black Fashion Models, we see a very different view of Black womans beauty. The runways of Paris and Milan served as the stepping-stones of many highly paid Black fashion models. Despite the pervasiveness of racism, many Black models found acceptance in this part of the world. We can trace this acceptance to the lifes work of Josephine Baker. Although her story is by far not an exceptionally happy tale she did gain romance and acceptance in Europe long before her popularity began in America. Man, Naomi Campbell and many other African American models Jump started their careers on runways in Europe. One model Carol Labile suggests that she was openly accepted in Europe because she was a beautiful Black woman. Unfortunately, this beauty was and remains for the most part the European ideal of slim, fair skinned, with long straight hair and light eyes. Despite the acceptance of Black models as beautiful in Europe, there are definite racist corollaries between Europe and the United States. Both countries operated on an uneven accounting field.As noted in Skin Deep (Summers 1998), double bookings were performed (a practice of booking a white model and a Black model for the same shoot to target specific print audiences) and Black models received less that half the salary of white models. Another negative consequence that many Black models faced in these Euro-dominant societies was distaste for natural Black hair (kinky, curly, braids, etc.. . ). As long as the unsuspecting public was appeased with the new, beautiful, and still fair skinned faces, the cosmetics companies who sponsored them could breath an uneasy sigh of relief.As preventatives of a race, Black models always had to answer by their presence- loaded questions e what to do with their hair? The simplistic rhetoric of the asss equating processed hair with processed minds had left a bitter feeling behind. However no subject carried more weight than an age-old issue that mixed the personal and the political with the paycheck: The bottom line is that many Black women conformed to societies ideals of beauty. We were willing to conform. We didnt fight it. If you dont give much thought to your identity you didnt wear it right. You didnt wear it with confidence. You had to feel and accept it. But most of us dont have that type of strength. We Just go with the flow. (Summers 1998:141) While Black models and women in general in the developed worldblithely conducted experiments on themselves, they were also being observed and imitated by women in less developed countries.Top fashion model Elaine Evans comments, Black people in Africa looked up to African American women for beauty in hair and hair but not fashion, because they think we dress terribly. But for hair and makeup, they know were the most advanced, so theyre following us (Summers 1998:142). Globalizes Beauty Elaine Vans comments on a trip to Africa where she witnessed first hand the effects have taken skin whitening creams to the limit. Vie seen them mix those creams with Colors, and paint it all over their body.They burn all their skin off, and then put oil on it, suffering all that pain Just to become light. But theyre following us (Summers 1998:142). Bertha, a barmaid in Dares Saloon, Tanzania, said in the past she used McGregor because a lighter skin means beauty, and most men go for white women(Munroe 2001 :11). The Uganda and Kenya government has taken measures o ban skin lightning concoctions because they caused serious aliments and even death. This skin lightning process is even popular an India.Current scholars are asking the question why are women doing this to themselves. After decades of being ruled by the British, havent we learnt anything about pride in our color? Why are our girls being raised with the notion that if they are dark they arent accepted? In a country of brown people how did looking normal come to be looked down upon (Eagle 2002:MM) According to Sandals through the differential, we find a strategy of contrasting philosophy that operates thorough mobility.Furthermore, Sandals suggests that the power of the differential can be thought of as not drifting, but rather cinematographic: a kinetic motion that maneuvers, poetically transfigure, and orchestrates while demanding alienation, perversion and reformation in both spectators and practitioners. Unfortunately, the differential may not always be used for positive transformation. The media consistently uses the differential to maintain cultural oppression thru, inoculation, which allows the consumer to believe that difference is acceptable in a narrow spectrum and connected to the dominant perception of ideal beauty.Berths 1957) This beauty ideal is taken even one step further when the media portrays in a country of bottle shaped women all westernizes movies and commercials that depict the average women as a stick figure that all men want. M-Net, which shows mostly American movies and TV Shows, chose a skinny 62 teenager from Largos, Alcoholic Arguable, who is not considered particularly pretty here but became a hit on the runways (Monish 2002). This trend is becoming more popular in Nigeria and other counties in Africa and worldwide. Among young fashionable Nigerian voluptuousness is out and thin is in (Monish 002). Print media, television, music and specifically music television are large tools in globalization. Through the images that are transmitted globally, women are bombarded with ideals of beauty that are not representative of themselves. It is through these mediums that women are attempting to construct their identities. The pervasiveness and influence of music and television on people is well documented (e. G.Brown and Campbell 1986; Curtain 1999; and Emerson 2002). Studies say identities are constructed thru popular culture (Hebrides 1979, Labeled 1999). A Very Brief History of Women in Hip-Hop A major pop culture influence globally is that of Hip-Hop. Constraints limit the degree to which this article can discuss the very rich legacy of Hip-Hop culture. However, Hip-Hop culture has been around longer than its antagonists anticipated-?over 25 years, and despite a predominately hostile reception.Michael Tyson (1994 as quoted the Culture of Hip-Hop stating that: It is difficult for a society that maintains social arrangements, economic conditions, and political choices [which] create and reproduces poverty, racism, sexism, classics, and violence, to appreciate a music form] that contests and cannibalizes such problems. (1994; 100-101) The development of the music for both male and female artists, the definitions of, and the connection between Hip-Hop and rap are relatively straight forward: they share roots within the African American community and are both forms of resistance against dominant systems of power.Hip-Hop is a modern, aesthetic cultural characteristic of urban youth within the African American community. Hip-Hop culture consists of the music (rap), baggy but fashionable clothing, the arts (graffiti), the dance (break Nanning), large sound systems, manual mechanical sound effects (cutting and scratching on turntables), Digging (the disc Jockey), Mincing (the microphone controller or master of ceremonies), and the language (I. E. , You, Hippo, a way of life, holly-?Peace).Hip-Hop is an extension of the African American culture that includes for instance, the Harlem Renaissance and its music, Jazz, which also had fresh forward thinking forms of literature, art and music that represented expressions and experiences of African Americans (Aziza-Hashish 1999). Hip-Hop is a part of Black music, which in unreal, is a cultural communicative expression, deeply embedded within African American experiences (Epstein Berry, 1994). Hip-Hop is a dominant force in the music industry, making a formidable impact on popular culture worldwide (Summer 2000).Vastly different marginalia groups ranging from the Maori have appropriated hip-Hop and Aborigines in New Zealand and Australia, to workingmans whites in post communist Poland. Each of these groups uses Hip-Hop to express their own political resistance against the dominant social structures. In the United state the roots of Hip- Hop are embedded deeply within the struggle of a enervation to resist dominant political and societal expectations and representation.During the early sass, the typically male-dominated venues were located in poor streets of the South Bronx, New York, where rap and Hip-Hop originated. In the late sass Hip-Hop finally opened to include female artists (Epstein Berry, 1994). Early music videos showcased tough Black women who served as a female version of the typical male rap and Hip-Hop artist. Female rappers wore the dress code of the streets: designer urban street wear, baggy denim Jeans or overalls and name-brand nines shoes (Bender, 2002, Summer, 2000 Epstein and Berry, 1994).When African American female Hip-Hop and rap artists such as Queen Latish and Salt N Pepper finally did emerge from the shadows of their male counterparts, they were a bit sexier in lyrical style that followed the vein of Billie Holiday and Retreat Franklin incorporating a bluesy sexiness that expanded the genre of Hip-Hop beyond where the male artists had developed. By the late sass, a new model of women in music television videos began to emerge. The images were very progressive and sometimes shocking when compared to the earlier milder music videos.In earlier videos a fully clothed Queen Latish sang about self-awareness and promoted the message that all Black women are queens in Ladies First. Today, artists like Ill Kim showing a lot of skin, and the nasty girl of Hip-Hop Foxy Brown sing such l yrics as mina pitches sucking disproportionately negative images shown on Music Television (MET), Video Hits I(VII), and Black Entertainment. Unfortunately, these images, despite the overwhelming availability of more politically and diversified images negative images, are the ones that get airtime and notoriety by the mainstream. Despite this Hip-Hop entities to resist stereotypes, gender assignments and political execution, through music and clothing that are detached form mainstream ideals. Globalizes and Commodities Hip-Hop Culture Like television and other forms of media, music today is commodities, subject to a global economy. Hip-Hop as a term includes dance, dress and style. These things considered Hip-Hop has been primed for cross over first into white America and subsequently into the global market. Hip-Hop has been marshaled to the promotion of clothing, soft drinks, and other items appealing to youth.Despite the attempts by reparations to remodel the sub culture of Hip-Hop by suppressing many of its resistance signifying codes and reproducing them globally, Hip-Hop roots are resistance, and lovers of Hip-Hop do not miss the embedded messages. Introduced through MET, movies and commercials, Hip-Hop culture can be found in Japan England, France and Germany. Youth in each region adapt African American culture to their demographics. In Japan the influence of Hip-Hop culture is overwhelming (Summer 2000:3).Additionally, Cortez suggests that the acceptance of Hip-Hop style signifies a transnational identity, whereby particular groups of people from efferent cultural, religious, ethnic, social, moral background and/or experiences can freely participate. Hip-Hop traditionally is an all-inclusive phenomenon. This inclusively is appealing because of its propensity for racial and gender identification revolution. In Japan, female Hip-Hoppers use the genre to defy gender restrictions for women (Summer 2000:3).By reconfiguring Hip-Hop and thus Blackness as desirable provides greater opportunities for interactive dialogue between groups that otherwise would maintain and reinforce old racist controlling ideals. Instead, we e groups of youths engaging Hip-Hop as a mechanism worldwide to speak up and out about the injustices that they face. In the Japanese reproduction of Hip-Hop, the origins may be elided but most notably they are not whitened. According to Cortez (1994) these youth choose to use Hippo as a rebellion against adult mainstream society. In London marginalia East Indian youth blend Indian melodies and Hindi with English rap as a street form of protest. In Paris, poor Jewish, Middle Eastern and West African youth coming out of the projects use Hip-Hop styles and rap to talk about their poverty and police brutality (Summer 2000:3). Conclusion: Breaking Down The Politics As we look at Hip-Hop we see an ever-changing cultural apparatus, one that is inclusive of many faces and voices. There are still battles to be fought in this artistic/ social genre but currently this subculture has demonstrated the capacity to change the world, as we know it. Shivers (2000:BE) notes this trend, When one looks at the scantily clothed women gyrating in front, or in back, of male rapper and the female emcee selling her sexuality to sell hit records. Although this trend can be seen in Hp-Hop, I would assert that this is not specific to Hip-Hop but to the music industry in unreal. In fact, current trends in Hip-Hop reveal more women interested in consciousness raising rather than sex. Shivers (2000:BE) suggests that Lauren Hill is perceived as political first and foremost and that her shows are filled with intelligence exuberance and simple entertainment.There are many other young women who continue to choose this high path to entertainment and self- representation: Eric Baud, Lauren Hill, Nonchalant, and Jill Scott, to name a few. Fighting resistance from the male dominated music industry, these women choose to stand up for women instead of succumbing to the pressures of an industry that loud stereotype them as vixens. Through positive imag es and powerful lyrics consumers are provided with realistic views of society and themselves. These women are the mothers of a Hip-Hop- MET generation where music, fashion, beauty all merge.Scholars note that in younger generations of women we see the influence of subcultures redefining beauty and the media has had no choice but to follow suit. (Swell, 1983;White, 2001; Winter, 2002) Many advertisers are now using celebrities from the music industry to gain consumer confidence. Additionally, these advertisers are using African American women who are part of the Hip-Hop culture. Advertisement campaigns are now using more Black celebrities such as Abeyance from Destinys Child for LOreal and Eureka Baud in A Gap clothing campaign (Gordon 2001 : 3).Dry. Melissa Stevenson notes that the acceptance by younger generations of the natural you is a generational change that youth are using to create their own identity without having to conform to the traditional confines of American Society. She like many others credits this self-identity development to the genre of Hip-Hop culture (Mitchell 2001; Minus 2001). If you look at MET on any given day the intermingling of Hip-Hop and beauty is a notable thing articulacy on Fashionably Loud, a program designed to incorporate fashion and music into one entity.La La and Molly Sims along with co-hosts, Kimono Lee Simmons DC Clue, present collections from the Spring 2003 urban designer lines. The hottest models and celebrities, including Charlie Baltimore, Loon, and MAC Late, will be wearing the clothes everyone wants to rock. And this is no normal runway. While Sexy models parade the stage youll witness series of hot, banging, live performances by some of the biggest names in Hip-Hop music. A few even moonlight as million dollar designers (MET. Com 2002)!As an African American woman, I maintain that we are finally at a point when we get to say who we are what we are and to demand that the representation of what is beautiful and cultural no be static but fluid like everything else in the global market. That time has come to recognize and include the voices, faces, desires, opinions and concerns of those considered minorities, is supported by the creation of new cosmetic lines that support the multi-ethnic world we live in. In an interview by Renee White, Caroline Coulombs says: Women of color are looking for makeup made especially for themThankfully the notion of a womans beauty is now cosmopolitan and universal, and no longer limited to images of pallid European runway waifs. Heres to racial diversity and color (White 2001:19). White also found approach. Fernery asserts: l believe that women of color are the women of the world African American, Native American, Hispanic, Middle Eastern, Indian, African and Asian. These women live right here in this country. It is time to address the concerns of the invisible consumer (White 2002: 19).Many cosmetic companies are following examples set by major firms to broaden their consumer base by adopting or starting with a ultimately approach. The founders designed a custom skin-care line that can carefully be matched to the skin care needs of individuals in 40 ethnic groups (Limn 2002:24). Roger Hall a professor in Media studies asserts that the use of multi ethnic women in advertising is a signifier of changing times and a change of what is considered beautiful. He credits the influence of the Hip-Hop subculture in the mainstream (Gordon 2001).As a member of the Hip-Hop subculture, it is good to hear and see more women deciding for themselves who they are and that they are beautiful, no matter what Vogue or MET may say. Admittedly there are still those who are unjustly influenced by the dominant view of what is beautiful and cultured, but with the current trend of Hip-Hop dominated, post-colonial inclusively in full swing they have a greater chance of seeing their natural selves as beautiful. Things are definitely changing; slowly but surely. In times of DSL and high speed Internet access many more voices are heard.

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buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay The gathering of information by educators on student learning outcomes has been going on for several years. Some of the terms that have been used to describe this process are observing, examining, testing, quizzing, measuring, evaluating, appraising and assessing, but the primary goal of determining the educational achievement of students has remained constant. According to Popham (1999), assessing the students learning goals of professional development is a more complex process than most people anticipate. This is because it entails more than simply documenting students current learning status. Changes in students are the components of most development goals and more specifically, they involve improvements or positive changes. This shows that relevant information must be gathered and at appropriate points in time. To determine whether the students are improving, it may be necessary to assess them at the point of entry and then at a later point. Comparisons with other students may al so be necessary to isolate the effects of the professional development program (Johnson Johnson, 1994). Without knowing the students position at the beginning or without comparing them with others in the same level, it might be difficult to determine if any improvement or change has actually occurred. Gathering information at a later point is also important to measure retention and long time learning (Popham, 1999). The intended student learning goals of a program are usually the basis of determining the procedures to be used in collecting evaluation information. The outcomes to be measured can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor (Popham, 199). In any educational program, the procedures and instruments used to assess the programs effects are central. Teachers have several ways of measuring students learning and the choice of an assessment procedure will depend on the stated objectives. This paper will critically evaluate the standardized tests and other alternative assessment programs. Importance of Assessment According to Linn Gronlund (2000), measurement refers to assigning numbers to certain characters of people, objects or events according to a rule governed system. In a classroom context, the rules that are used in assigning the numbers will normally create a ranking that shows how much of the attribute different students possess. They also defined evaluation as the making judgments about the worth or value of a set of measures using a rule governed system. It is important to assess students learning to provide all involved parties with a clear summary of how the student has managed to meet the teachers goals. Assessment of students is also important in order to monitor their progress. Teachers need to know whether their students synthesize their instruction and their understanding of all the material covered over time. This enables the teacher to make arrangements for students whose understanding is slower or faulty, such as remedial instruction (Linn Gronlund, 2000). Discovering that a student has any difficulty in understanding, and cannot learn at the same pace, like the rest of the students, it allows the teachers to decide on the appropriate and timely course of action. Other positive effects on various aspects of learning and instruction also arise from assessing a students performance. According to Brookhart (2000), classroom assessment directs students on what is important to learn, influences their motivation and understanding of competence. Assessment also structures students approaches to personal study and fosters the development of improved learning strategies and skills. It is one of the most potent forces influencing learning. Standardized Tests Goals and Strengths Commercially available standardized tests are commonly used by many programs to measure academic achievement of the students. Standardized tests are administered and scored in a standard or consistent manner. They are composed of a set of open ended or constructed responses items meant to measure higher degree of cognitive skills (William, 2006). The manner of scoring is usually predetermined and the procedures, conditions of administration and the interpretations consistent and standard. This consistency in administration and scoring allows more reliable comparison of results across test takers. The use of standardized exams in the U.S started in the 20th century after the Second World War. This was contributed by the need to standardize the highly de-centralized education system. The design of standardized tests is to provide the best match possible to what is viewed as the typical curriculum at a specific grade level. They provide quantifiable information (scores, proficiency levels, etc.) and outcomes that can be used in screening programs, for example, in identifying students whom may require additional assessment (Silbert Hintze, 2005). Using standardized tests is also advantageous because they provide information on a students areas of strength and weakness. Standardized tests also allow a comparison between a student and his peers in the same grade or age, and hence, assess development. These tests can also be used to assess a students progress over time, for instance, by re-administering a test after an intervention or a remedial program. The results of these tests can also be used to generalize a students skills. The results of one test can also be used to measure whether a student is improving uniformly by comparing one subject results with results of a different subject (Silbert Hintze, 2005). Critics Many people are of the view that standardized tests are important because they help measure students using a consistent process, teachers are held more accountable and it becomes easier to understand where problems occur. However, there has been criticism on the social and cultural repercussions of standardized tests. Becker (2001), argues that since these tests are designed by people in a position of power, it is possible for cultural bias against the have nots to arise. Since high performing schools are rewarded, while poorly performing schools are sanctioned by the current system, critics propose that standardized tests reward those at an advantage while the disadvantaged continue to hurt. This system is viewed to be exacerbating the race and class divide in the society through the education system (Burns, Dean Klar, 2004). Another concern is the increasing pressure on teachers to produce high test results. This comes about since teachers will teach for the test purposes instead of exploring approaches that may not produce results onpaper. Research on student achievement has highlighted problem associated with over-reliance on standardized tests. Such tests are now administered at every grade level and success or failure of programs defined in terms of test scores. Teacher and administrator salaries and their job securities are also linked to student performance in the standardized tests. The main areas of criticism are the content of assessment, formatting of items and item bias (Fuchs et al, 1991). Standardized tests generally often rely on multiple-choice questions. This item format provides for greater coverage of content and objective as well as efficient scoring. However, the item of interest by the format is the identification of the right answer. This type of response does not necessarily correspond to the type of responses regularly exhibited by students in the classroom, for example, the acquisition and synthesis of information (Deno, 2003). If the students are not familiar to the structure within which they are required to respond by the item format, then, their test performance may be affected. In another scenario, a student may identify the correct form when it appears as a discrete item in a test format, but use the form incorrectly in communication contexts. In this case, the results of a standardized test may make a student appear more proficient than performance would show (Shapiro, 2004). Inclusion of items that are biased against some kinds of students has also been a cause for criticism. These include ethnic minorities, limited English proficient, rural or inner city students. This criticism is based on the fact that the items reflect the culture, language, and/or the style of learning of the middle class majority (Shapiro, 2004). Test companies have endeavored to remove culture based items in tests, but this omission of questions from a meaningful context has been challenging for minority students. There are arguments that this method only measures superficial knowledge or learning. This is because students can easily cram what they think will appear in the test and fail to give other areas much attention. Standardized tests may also fail to match specific objectives and goals of a program or institution (Klecker, 2000). This therefore makes them more unlikely to provide the most appropriate way to evaluate the program. Criterion referenced data is considered more useful than norm-referenced data, the type produced by standardized tests. This arises from the premises that norm-referenced data does not clearly show the progress of a student over time. Criterion based data also allows easy administration of pre and post tests to measure development, while a standardized test may be cost prohibitive to administer such (Becker, 2001). Norm data may use norms rather than true national sample, thus making it unfair to those taking it. Another challenge is that it may prove difficult to isolate what changes are required since it is more summative than formative. This makes it difficult to identify areas of weaknesses and develop means to assist students with difficulties. In addition, receiving the results on time is also a challenge (Brookhart, 2000). Critics argue that the measures used in standardized tests fail to inform instruction adequately. For some students with disabilities, the standardized administrations may not be possible. Some accommodations may need to be done to allow the disabled students to take some test in the established standardized way (Becker, 2000). However, these accommodations can become modifications to then trait under measurement. The items used in standardized tests are also frequently unrelated to the behaviors and tasks required in a classroom setting. Recommendations for Improvement Non cognitive factors such as fatigue, attention, anxiety, can influence the test results taken at one point in time. These results will therefore be a reflection of the students ability or behavior at that point in time. The results of standardized tests also fail to provide the necessary information required in restructuring curricular or instructional change (Gay Airasian). These procedures also prevent the examiner from determining conditions under which the students performance may improve. Students with a language deficit can be used better to explain the shortcomings of this system. Assessing the performance of these students on their language proficiency will be unfair since their level of performance may be higher if instruction is delivered using a language they are proficient in (Popham, 1999). The goal of education is to produce morally developed citizens who fit well in the society. Education also provides an individual with an opportunity to develop skills and learn how to solve problems. Since people have different skills and abilities, it is important to acknowledge this and provide different forms of evaluating student achievement to avoid bias (Griffin, 1994). Measuring the cognitive (knowledge and understanding), affective (attitudes, beliefs and dispositions) and psychomotor (skills, behaviors and practices) outcomes of a program is important. Cultural, racial, class and gender differences must be taken into account by any assessment task or procedure. In this context, there are strong arguments favoring educators considering using alternative methods of assessing students and evaluating the program (Klecker, 20000. Even as educators continue to use standardized tests, it is necessary to supplement them with other types of assessments. Such additional forms of assessment are; Group Tasks or Activities Student learning can alternatively or supplementary be assessed by their performance on group tasks or activities. For instance, if the written test covered 25 of the 50 items covered, then the students can be put into groups and the remaining 25 items covered. These groups are composed of students who work together to tackle a complex problem or carry out a detailed experiment. The structuring of an appropriate group activity is such that each student has a vital role in the task. Group tasks, like any other authentic cooperative learning activities, should include a combination of individual accountability and group responsibility (Johnson Johnson, 1994). A popular design of group tasks is assigning students to perform an activity as a group. Each student is then expected to produce a written product based on that experience. Most group tasks and activities are used by individual teachers as part of their instructional process, but some large scale assessment systems include them as well. As explained by Popham (1999), they provide information on two key learning goals: They give information on a students ability to apply skills to produce outcomes that can be evaluated. They show a students ability to work with others in a team to find solutions to problems. However, it is important to address the limitations of group tasks and activities. Ensuring involvement of all students in developing group tasks and activities can prove challenging and time consuming (Popham, 1999). Scoring students responses can also be time consuming especially if the class is a large one. With proper planning, group tasks and activities are the best way to assess students if involving students in team work is one of the cognitive goals. Group tasks can also provide an important source of information on complex learning results when paired with specific scoring criteria that students are taught before the group activity (Klecker, 2000). Cooperative groups enhance a students understanding of concepts through interaction with peers verbally. They also provide information to the teacher on the cognitive processes students employ in giving responses. Group tasks are also an important aspect in reinforcing the learning environment in a classroom (Johnson Johnson, 199 4). Portfolios and Other Collection of Students Work These are compilations of students work that show what they have achieved so far. Most portfolios include collections of students written papers and other works completed in their process of learning (William, 2006). These collections demonstrate the progress of a student over the years. This form of assessment encourages the participation of all interested individuals (teachers, students, parents) in the documentation of the learning process. The papers are derived from a students daily classroom work. It involves taking samples of a students work, recording of students observations of learning experiences, and evaluation of students processes and outcomes. Although information from this type of assessment can be used for grading purposes, the main goal is to improve the instruction methods and students learning (Shapiro, 2004). Curriculum Based Assessment Although it falls under criterion-referenced testing, curriculum based assessment is considered an alternative to traditional standardized norm-referenced academic testing. It refers to a measurement that relies on direct observation and recording a students performance in the local curriculum as a basis of gathering information to make instructional decisions (Deno, 2003). Curriculum based assessment (CBA) has also been termed as direct assessment of educational skills, and is based on the assumption that assessment should be on what has been taught. CBA involves repeated measurement of a students academic skills (Linn Grolund, 2000). In each area of learning, probes are selected and used to gauge student performance. The probes are developed from curricular materials available in the students immediate learning environment. CBAs therefore provide a structured method to assess a students performance based on curricular assignments used in their actual learning environment (Brookhar t, 2000). The basic argument underpinning this assessment approach is that in evaluating their progress, students should be observed in their academic environment. Dynamic Assessment This refers to a type of learning assessment that makes use of an active teaching process. The goal of this process is to provide a modification in an individuals cognitive functioning and observe the changes that result in the examinees learning and problem solving strategies. The main goals of dynamic assessment are to: Assess the ability of a student to identify the principles behind a problem and use this understanding to provide a solution. Assess the most appropriate type and amount of teaching required to teach a student a specific principle. Understand any cognitive deficits and non cognitive factors that help explain failure in students performances and whether teaching can modify such factors (Gay Airasian, 1999). Dynamic assessment is a contrast of standardized assessment where examiners present items to examinees without providing any guidance or any other form of intervention designed to improve the students performance (Brookhart, 2000). In static assessment, an individuals deficits and disabilities are accepted and modification is done on the environment to allow the person work within the identified limitations (Johnson, Johnson Holubec, 1994). On the contrary, dynamic assessment is based on active modification where efforts are made to remediate the deficits or provide the individual with alternative strategies to solve probes to supplement their areas of weakness. Conclusion High stakes testing is linked to overreliance on standardized tests as the primary means of assessment and as the principle source of curriculum content. These high stakes testing poses critical consequences to students since use of a single measure (standardized test score) may determine graduation or promotion to the next level. Instructors are now held accountable of students performances (Becker, 2000). Without doubt, testing and accountability are important aspects of a program since assessment practices are the key to accountability and improved teaching processes. However, opposition arises from the use of a single measure of assessment through standardized tests. The decisions regarding progress, promotion and gradation using a single indicator to measure an individuals learning violate the ethics of teaching. The higher the stakes for testing, the greater the emphasis teachers will place on test preparation and teaching to the test as opposed to meaningful learning. Assessment should be driven by innovative curriculum design and effective teaching practices. Other types of assessments should be used to supplement standardized tests to enhance the spirit of research among students. As asserted by Becker (2001), no clear evidence exists that high test scores reflect actual improvement in student learning either at the individual or group level. No single measure can be used as a definitive measure of a students knowledge. Student assessment is constructive if the educational approaches used are research oriented and emphasize on equity in the academic processes. Not all students demonstrate well what they have learnt using standardized tests, biased assessment, policies and practices should not be used since they limit learning opportunities for individuals and hinder curriculum development and teaching. Buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay